Early Journalism-Invention of the Printing Press

 The earliest origins of Journalism can be traced as far back as 6,000BC when the Chinese created their own form of pictographic script. Chinese inventor Liu Ching invented the first printed map in 1191. However the earliest recognised forms of Journalism can be traced back to one man: Johannes Gutenberg. 

German inventor Johannes Gutenberg is seen by many as the "founding father of journalism". In 1436 Gutenberg began work inventing the printing press. Gutenberg was inspired by some of the earliest pressing machines, such as the screw press, which was mainly used in agricultural production. Gutenberg by 1440 had completed his wooden machine, however the most important aspect of his invention was that is was the first form of printing to use movable type. 

The movable print was significant as it was the first type of print that could move the lettering around separately. Before Gutenberg's invention was used, the transcriptions and publications of books were completed by hand in the monasteries by thousands of well-educated monks. 

In 1440 the first set of publications created by Gutenberg's printing press were released. The mass-produced indulgences were printed slips of paper sold by the Catholic Church to remit temporal punishments for sins committed in this life. By 1450 Johannes Gutenberg had started producing publications of the bible, this was mainly due to the partnership Gutenberg had formed with Johann Fust. Fust had financed the publications, which led to a printing boom all across Europe. 

Many saw Gutenberg's 42-page bible as his most accomplished work. Despite the success and admiration, Gutenberg was not making much money. This would change when Gutenberg started selling copies of his two-volume bible for a price significantly cheaper than the handwritten copies, which could take at least 20 years for one monk to transcribe. 

By 1455 Gutenberg has perfected the formula used for his printing press. This was accomplished by creating an oil-based ink that was suitable for the high quality printing being created by the metal type. However, this was soon to change as Johann Fust sued Gutenberg. This led to Fust gaining ownership of the printing equipment, enabling him and Gutenberg's former assistant, Peter Schoffer to publish the completed bible in 1456. 

This did not stop Gutenberg as he managed to manufacture a new printing press with help from Conrad Humery. This printing outfit comprised of a set of small types fashioned after the long cursive handwriting used in books at the time. Gutenberg's invention continued to spread across western society until his death in 1468.

Around the time of Gutenberg's death, there was another man who had begun to form his own printing press in England. His name was William Caxton. Caxton had travelled to Germany and learnt his craft through the expertise of famous German printer Johannes Veledener. In 1474 Caxton would take this knowledge and set up his own printing press near Westminster Abbey. This would be where he  produced the first printing works written entirely in English. They included the famous works of Geoffrey Chaucer, most notably The Canterbury Tales.

Johannes Gutenberg and William Caxton have had major influence over civilisation and the modern world. These two men influenced every local and national newspaper, as well as every book published. Even though they were scrutinised by many within high society during the 15th century. No one can argue the fact that the world we live in today, where we are allowed freedom of expression. This would have not of been possible without help from "The Gutenberg Galaxy.” 

 References 

http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/gutenberg.htm (1)

http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/printpress.htm (2)

http://www.suite101.com/content/william-caxton-a83142 (3)

www.wikipedia.org (4)

www.google.com (5)

Winol review round two.....The good, The bad and The FRUSTRATING!

Right we are back once again to review this week's edition of WINOL. After the feedback I gave last week it was interesting to see if the improvements I suggested had been made and if anything new had either impressed me or where improvements could still be made. Think we will begin with looking at what I thought went well this week:

* Once again the pitch and clarity of both Claire and Tom was first class. It impresses me how professional and direct they are with connecting with the audience and I could easily see them give both The BBC Solent and ITV Meridian news presenters a run for their money (watch out Fred Dinenage).

* It was also nice to see the inclusion of the in-studio discussion between Claire and Julie. Not only did it introduce a new face into the studio, but it gave the audience an better incite into the financial cuts being made by the government. Also relating it to how it would affect students kept the discussion directed at the target audience.

*The camera work throughout the bulletin this week was a stark improvement on last week. The focus was much clearer and the chosen shots were more specific and relevant to the stories being presented.

* The report on the whole were effective and direct. In particular the piece to camera work throughout from all reporters was effective, factual and gave the audience watching the complete picture in relation to each particular story. I won't pick out a favourite this week as I may cause an bias with a certain third-year friend who will remained unnamed!

 * The interviews for the most part were very well presented. It was nice to see the caption on the screen long enough to see who was being interviewed and the focus solely held upon the interviewee.

*Again the sport delivered. We had excellent reports. The commentary finally had that uplift from Karen Parnell who gave the additional passion and emphasis, which is needed when reporting on a cup game. It was nice to see the emphasis being put on the coaches this week, as well as the players and I am pleased to say we had no spelling errors!!!

Now for what i did not enjoy about this week's bulletin and where improvements can still be made. Be warned I may go on a little bit of a rant.

* Now I know it is the main news topic of the day throughout the UK, but I felt we had a little too much emphasis on spending cuts. I understand the relevance to what is going on in the political and journalistic world at the moment, however I think there was too much emphasis on the cuts, which dominated the majority of the stories. Some of these I felt had little or no relevance to students (remember who is the targeted demographic).

* The running order of the stories this week I felt could of been questioned. The lead story on the homeless shelter spending cuts I felt had less relevance to students than most of the other stories. I felt possibly leading with the proposed spending cuts to train fares would of made more relevance as students will always be catching trains. I will say thought that the stories are of relevance to the local residents in and around Winchester, who may watch the broadcast as well.

* Some of the camera work in places was shaky and irrelevant to the story. However you can not demand perfection when you reporting on your own.

* This may cause a bit of controversy but I can not say for one I enjoyed the end piece of the bulletin. I understand the creation of a lighter feel to the bulletin, however this is a news bulletin and feel that that the winter fashion piece would of been more relevant as a piece on the WINOL website opposed to the news bulletin.

* The only other thing I could suggest is a rotation of the presenters. I am not having a gripe because the presenting from Claire and Tom is fantastic. However I feel that it is time to give more people a chance to anchor the bulletin and see what combinations work well together and you can Claire and Tom are a established duo. Hopefully we will see the introductions of new presenters over the coming weeks.

Overall this week's edition of WINOL was a improvement on last week as the criticisms I picked up on last week had all been answered. The overall product is clearly establishing a link with the student population at The University of Winchester and I am really looking forward to getting involved as soon as possible.

The day we visited Winchester Magistrates.... no sorry Winchester Crown Court!

What do you do when you have a spare few hours inbetween lectures...take a group of five friends and go to the Crown Court of Winchester. Originally we were looking for the magaistrates court, but low and behold we end up walking into the Crown Court. There we were greeted by two secruity guards, a scanner (similar to one you would find in an airport) and the constant beeping of the alarm. I think this could of been caused by the fact everyone was wearing a belt, but never the less we had passed security and had to make a decision of which court we should go too.

After the helpful advice of the lady at reception we decended upon Court Four with anticipation and wondering who would be the first person placed in front of the judge for contempt of court. After cramming into a lift I thought we would end up gettting stuck in, we ended up outside Court Four's veiwing gallery. We walked in not knowning what to expect. The jury started to fill in aswe were sitting down and we found the usual suspects: The judge, the defence, the prosecution and the defendant. Before the proceedings began the judge explained how one of the jurors had been dismissed as they were friend's with the defendant's father from what I could gather.

Then the proceeding began with testomony from a Forensic Scientist. As the questioning from the prosecution began a note was revelaed, which was revelaed as a death threat. So the question that came to mind instantly was: Was this the ongoing proceeding of a murder trial?

As the questioning continued we found out that there was three different set of DNA imprint of the notes, one set belonging to the defendant as suggesting upon by the Forensic Scientist. The odds of the imprints not belonging to the defendant were described by the Scientist as "very slim" and that only 400 people in the whole of The United Kingdom would have the same set of Alleles as the defendant.

The defence then started their failed attempt of trying to question and exploit the reliablity of the forensic results of the note. However from the questioning that had been carried out by the prosecution, the amount of overwhelming evidence was overbarring against the defence who evidence appeared to be very limited at best. We left after the second testemony and I could honestly say I was gripped by the case and was in complete awe of the amount of news that could of came out of this one case.

Unfortunatly prior engagements left me unable to attend the session at Pizza Hut afterwards, even though I was given the full details about Ali and the spoonful of Humous (very graphic by the sounds of it) and the now infamous squash downing contest. However two things can be said for the day at Winchester Crown court, we all survived without any formal prosecution and I have become hooked into the world of court reporting. 

Media Law: Reporting The Courts..... The how to guide on how not to end up in the dock!

For Journalists reporting in the courts is one of the hardest and most complicated aspects of the profession. This is because there are so many rules and regulations that we have to follow, but ultimately they protect us from any wrongdoing. This is the how to guide on how not to end up out of pocket and spending a nice short sentence in her majesties prison (HMP).

First there are the basic legal principles that all journalists need to observe and abide. The first and possible the most important aspect is the presumption of innocence. Anyone who is accused of committing a criminal offence is innocent until proven guilty. The defendant must be found guilty beyond reasonable doubt in a court of law in front of a judge and jury. 

This brings me onto the next legal term of prejudice. In legal terms prejudice is creating bias against a defendant in a court case by prejudging them before a verdict can be decided upon. This could affect and influence a jury's verdict and may found the defendant guilty based upon the negative influence of the journalistic community. These misconceived opinions could end up in you being charged with contempt of court, an offence where you have no defense against you. Not only could your journalistic career be in tatters, but also you could end up spending six months in prison and losing up to a year’s salary (up to £40,000 in fines). 

The only defense you may have against contempt of court is the special legal right of qualified privilege. Qualified privilege gives you immunity from prosecution in most cases for example in a libel case where you are acting in the interest of the general public. Always when reporting act in the interest of the general public as they are the backbone of the profession. Without the general public there would be no need for news, so always act in the good nature of expression your views and opinions to do good for society. Never under any circumstances show malice as it could end up being your ultimate downfall and ruin your career and reputation within the industry.

The next basic legal principle is that justice must be done. This is where the accused has been formally charged with a criminal offence and is brought upon a magistrate and formally charged with offence. This will then be sent to trial in front of a judge and 12 jurors. The trial must be held in public, following the known rules of evidential procedure. This will be the same in all but the must sensitive cases where there is a strong reason to keep the trial away from the public eye for example cases involving children.

Now there are two courts in the British legal system: The civil and criminal courts. Civil courts deal with 

The minor offences most notably libel cases, industrial tribunals and those lovely driving offences that we seem to encounter at least once in our lives. These proceedings normally take place in a magistrate’s court in front of a magistrate. Now this is what most people would think a magistrate looks like: 

 

 No Anne Widdecombe has not moved from Strictly Come Dancing to the magistrates court, but the general consensus is that a magistrate is a grumpy old lady who support the conservative party, however this is not the case. The maximum prison term a magistrate can impose is six months and the maximum fine of £5000

Now criminal cases will take place used in the crown court, which is where all indictable offences are sent to trial. Two barristers will carry out the formal proceeding: one for the prosecution and the other for the defense. The barrister role is to support the evidence they present beyond reasonable doubt. 

The role of the prosecution is to prove that the defendant is guilty and back this up with the evidence they use to prove their case. The defense will compete against the consistency and the reliability of the prosecution's evidence in order to clear their defendant. Once the all the evidence is presented and the jurors have found the defendant guilty it is up to the judge to decide on the right sentence applicable to each relevant case. 

Now there are three types of criminal offences: indictable, either-way or summary cases.

The first type of criminal offence is indictable which is where a case can only be tried after an formal preliminary hearing. This will usually take place in a magistrates court where the accused will be formally charged with the offence. This will then proceed to the crown court where the case will be heard. Type if indictable offences include: 

*Murder/Attempted Murder

*Manslaughter

*ABH (Actual Bodily Harm)

*GBH (Grievous Bodily Harm)

*Fraud

*Rape

*Perjury

An either-way or hybrid offence is an case which can be tried in either the magistrates or crown court depending on the offence. This will depend on the severity of the crime and if the magistrates wish to send the case to a crown court for trial. Example of either-way cases include:

*Drug offences

*Comment assault

*Theft

*Dangerous driving

*Death by dangerous or reckless driving.

Summary cases are lower-level offences that will usually take place in an magistrates courts. These are the offences that are not as severe and carry smaller prison terms and fines. These include:

* Driving whilst under the influence

*Handling

*Wasting police time.

* Driving with excess alcohol.

*Kerb-crawling. 

These are the basic that journalists need to know in order to write stories that are kept within the law and are in the interest of the general public. Hopefully after reading this I will not be ending up in the dock anytime soon.

Next time I will be revealing the day we went to visit the courts and if anyone did end up in the cells. For now I will leave you to simmer on that thought.

WINOL The first bulletin.... My thoughts

Today we were shown the first WINOL bulletin of the year. We have been asked to comment on what we thought went well, what we liked and what we thought could be improved.

First I will start with what I thought went well:

* The opening sequence was very professional and was reminiscent of a certain Local BBC news show I watch.

* The anchors voices were very clear, concise and professional. The tone and pace of both anchor, in particular Tom was almost pitch perfect. You could place either of them on an mainstream news channel and they would be right at home.

* The report regarding university tuition fees was very well presented. The interviews were professionally conducted and the summary from the reporter was very informative.

* The sport I thought was the highlight of the broadcast. It was nice to see the emphasis on local sports teams. Also it was good to see them reporting on the university sport teams and showing coverage of the matches.

*The camera work in places was of a very high standard. The backdrop on some of the interviews was relevant to the story, which was nice to see.

Now onto where I think improvement can be made to the product:

* I felt that the running order of the stories was questionable. When you look at the demographic who will watch the broadcast it would of been more relevant to of used the tuition fees scandal as the lead story opposed to the I.D card issue.

* The camera work during the lead story I felt in places was irrelevant to the story itself. The constant use of the shot showing student bar was disappointing as I felt they could of used a variety of different shots which could of made more reference to the story.

* The captions showing the name of the interviewees I felt were not kept on the screen long enough for the viewer to know who was being interviewed.

* The piece about the Queen may not of have been relevant to the target audience. However as I am from Southampton I won't complain about its use. Good to see the city is popping up even in university news bulletins.

* The commentary in the sports report for Winchester City was very lackluster. I feel that the commentary should of been more enthusiastic and emphasised the important of the game as it went all the way to a penalty shoot-out.

* The spelling of Eastleigh and Christchurch was incorrect. Very much of an annoyance for a local such as myself.

Overall thought I feel that bulletin was very well received and only needs a few improvements, which I know will be made throughout the year. I am very much looking forward to being a part of WINOL next year!

The Renaissance...from Machiavelli to Hitler..... Yes a Strange combination

The second lecture has passed and I have finally grasped the concept of how important philosophy is to the history of journalism. To say that I found it hard to grasp the concept and understanding of some of the ideas and issues raised would be an understatement. However I enjoy a challenge and I am starting to open up and understand the key concepts that have arisen from the reading.

I will be splitting the reading into two blogs, as there was so much to cover. The first blog will cover possible the most significant historical period: The Renaissance. The Renaissance is described as the "celebration of the human" as it was defined as the rebirth of culture in western society. The political background at the time is significant as Italy was at the time free from foreign interference. This is important, as one of the main political aspects of The Renaissance was the interference from foreign combatants, most notably the Spanish and The French.

There were five important states in Italy at the time of The Renaissance: Milan, Florence, Venice, The Papal Domain and Naples. What was clear was the divide between the northern and southern states. Milan in the north between 1495 and 1535 was the primary battleground between the French and The Spanish. The Sforza (the ruling family in Milan) could not choose one side to align with. However this indecisiveness was punished as in 1535 The Spanish monarch Charles V gained complete control of the state. 

The same could not be said for the southern state of Florence. Florence at the time of The Renaissance was the most civilized city in the world. This was mainly due to funding of The Medici family, the most prominent family in Florence. The ways of which The Medici's funded their empire was by a very modern concept, not ever heard of at the of The Renaissance. Through their banking corporation they were able to charge interest (this was illegal at the time) within the currency in payments made by their customers.  This was an extremely modern concept and cemented the ideas of which nation states formed from small colonies. Also I feel this was a revolutionary concept as it laid the foundations for the banking system that we have today. 

One Florentine whose ideas based the core foundations of The Renaissance was Machiavelli. Machiavelli was a key of The Medici Empire, employed as a diplomat and his ideas were associated with the creation of political science. Even though he works for The Medici he always opposed them and in 1512 he was arrested accused of corruption, but he was acquitted in 1513. He was sentenced to exile. However I feel this possible was the best type of punishment as it allowed Machiavelli to write some of his greatest work, most notably The Prince. 

The book act as guide oh how to obtain power and how to keep it. It describes the best way to acquire, obtain and sustain a state by any means necessary. What it does not tell you thought is if it is the right or wrong to gain power by any means. It was initially written to show how a Prince how they can obtain and keep power by advising them on how to do it. 

Machiavelli also in The Prince defined the unifying theme. He stated "All cities that ever, at any time, have been ruled by an absolute prince, by aristocrats, or by the people, have had for their protection force combined with prudence, because the latter is not enough alone, and the first either does not produce things, or when they are produced, does not maintain them. Force and prudence, then, are the might of all the governments that ever have been or will be in the world". 

What I think Machiavelli is trying to explain in defining the unifying theme is that at any one time in history a state has been controller by many different people. All with the same common goal, securing the protection of the state and of its people. I feel that even if you do not have initial control within monarchy, society's perception and support can show and express who clearly has the control and respect of a nation. 

Machiavelli also stated the infamous quote "It is better to be feared than loved". He expressed that Princes will have desires to have both, but it is difficult to combine them and. A ruler's rules should come from his own evidence, his own reality. One prominent dictator whose reign of terror, which is, expressed more than any that have proceeded him from that quote is German Dictator Adolf Hitler.

Bertrand Russell was quite the admirer of Hitler and believed that mass-psychology is vital in order for a government to control its people. Hitler's first attempt at gaining control of Germany saw him imprisoned for high treason, but after his release in 1924 he used widespread propaganda to gain the trust and the respect of the German people. Countless rallies notably The Nuremberg rally in 1928 showed the mass support that Hitler had gained. However I feel that the German people were not supporting Hitler out of respect but out of fear from what could of happened to them if they opposed the Nazi Party. 

One of the most loyal servants, Hermann Goring was Hitler's deputy and was the commanding office of The German Army (below Hitler) until 1942. Once his services were no longer required Goring went into exile. However after the war Goring as well as many other German officers was convicted of war crimes in The Nuremberg Trials. Goring was sentenced to death, but committed suicide before the act could take place. 

This expresses Machiavelli example of Borga except that Hitler would ultimately fall in his quest to become supreme ruler of the world. He did install fear throughout the Western world but that fear turned to hate, which lead to his eventual downfall. This downfall expressed Machiavelli's advise that in any form of dispute or conflict that you should always support the weaker side. During World War 2, The Germans had almost complete control over The Allied Forces and victory was close. However after The United States joined the war, The Allied Forces were able to gain control and achieve victory when in the 4 years of fighting before looked almost impossible.




 Machiavelli strategy over history has proven that in most conflicts this strategy has almost always worked (well apart from Vietnam). So whenever you are looking to back someone, back the underdog. So I would tip Southampton Football Club are still favourites to win NPower League One this season.

Back to the subject in 1527 this year brought upon the end of many important aspects in Italian history. It was the fall of Rome and the death of Machiavelli. This brought the end of The Renaissance, but from learning more into the history of the period and of Machiavelli I feel his ideas and concepts could make him the most significant figure not just in the early periods of philosophy, but also in the history of all Italian people. 

Mc Nae's essential laws for Journalists: Chapter 1 UK Constitutional Law

Journalists have the creative freedom to express there views and opinions to the general public in order to keep them updated about the latest news and current affairs in the UK


According to Lord Bingham in 2000 he stated that the media were "the eyes and the ears of the public to whom they report". It proves that the media truly are the main source of information to give the general public the key incite into the main news stories. However it is vital that all journalists abide by the laws that have been set out to protect us.

We must keep a constraint on the actions of journalists to ensure we are not caught in any case of civil or criminal law. If we produce a piece of journalism that in any way defames a person we may be liable to be sued for defamation of character. A prime example of this was the libel case of Max Mosley vs. News Group Newspapers Limited in 2009. 

An article in The News of The World brought allegations upon former FIA President Max Mosley claiming he had taken part in Sadomasochist activities with four prostitutes. The main vocal point of the allegations was that there was a "Nazi" element to the activities that had taken place. This was denied by Mosey and the Prostitutes involved. 

The libel case that followed conducted by Mr Justice Eady awarded £60,000 in damages to Mr Mosley.The main reason for this was the significant breach of criminal law and contervailing public interest generated by an established principle such as victimisation of the youth. 

This brings into context the ethical rules that all journalists must follow. Journalists must keep to the "code of ethics" recognised by all professional journalistic and regulatory bodies such as the Press Complaints Commission. One of the main common elements is the harm limitation principle. It states that when a journalist gathers information needed for their story. They must consider whether the information they have gathered should be reported and if so how?

I feel that The News of The World in the case of Max Mosley did not realise the harm and moral discomfort they caused Mr Mosley and the implications that affected Mr Mosley's professional and personal life after the trial. Due to the allegations Max Mosley's reputation was destroyed within Motor Sport and ultimately led to his resignation as FIA president at the end of his term in 2009.  


I have realised as journalists there are many laws that protect us from making vital mistakes and publishing something that may affect someone's personal life and could lead to legal action. However I can think of many occasions where a journalist has exploited these law in order to obtain a story, even though it is extremely unethical. 


I hope to learn more about the laws that all journalists need to follow closely and to ensure I learn not to make mistakes that could lead to legal action.